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CAUSES OF
DISPARITY BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE ENROLMENT IN ADULT EDUCATION
ABSTRACT
This
research work examined causes of disparity between male and female enrolment in
adult Education. Five research questions were generated to guide the study line
with the objectives of the study.
The
population of this study comprised student of University of Lagos Akoka Yaba,
Five department were selected for the study. The descriptive survey design was
used to conduct the study. Questionnaire was the instrument designed by the
researcher and administered to the respondents for collection of data. A total
of one hundred and fifty respondents were randomly selected as sample size for
the study. Data analysis was carried out using simple percentage and frequency
tables. The study found among other things that, the programme organized to
reduce causes of disparity between male and female enrolment in adult Education
has been fairly successful and that there are constraints which include
inadequate of fundings, Lack of grassroot planning, and male from this study,
The study recommended among others that there is need for restructuring of
grassroot planning, adequate information should be supply that male and female
students would be benefited.
Also
government should have adequate financial arrangement which should be matched
with an adequate administrative structure to deliver the services.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
There seems
to be a natural gender role distinction all over the world, which has created
gap in opportunities between men and women. This identified gap has constituted
what is generally regarded as gender inequality among gender advocates. To them
gender gap is that wide separation, the unfilled space between the male and
female in various Endeavour’s, which include education. According to UNESCO
(1995) the gap between the male and female literacy rates is not just about men
and women and the educational opportunities provided for them, but it is also a
statement about the society’s development, and its capacity and willingness to
provide such opportunities.
The
imbalance is noticeable in gender enrolment at all levels and types of
education, as well as across various disciplines and programmes, especially at
the tertiary level. Today such an existing gender gap between opportunities
seems to be narrowing. However, inequalities still persist in certain regions
of the world and more prominent in some sectors, of which education is
one. In the third world war and in
particular Nigeria, as put by Ballantine (1989) evidence indicates that subtle
and blatant sexism occurs at all levels of educational system. This , no doubt
is a reflection of the sex stereotype
which believes so much in male children as agents of genealogical
sustenance. This stereotype belief was found by Biraimah (1994) and funk (1993)
to have affected access to education in general and university education in
particular; and even the chance of career and profession. They both argued that
sexism and gender disparity remain a significant problem at all levels of
education, which require urgent solutions and strategies for ensuring gender
equity. However, the philosophy guiding the Nigerian educational policy is
“sound and effective citizen and equal educational opportunities for all
citizens of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels”(FGN 1981,
1998). By implication, the observed gender gap may not be attributable to
inequality of educational opportunities. Infact, the government implementation
of the free universal Basic education (UBE) that covers primary and junior
secondary education could be an attempt to equalize educational opportunities
throughout the country.
In addition,
the location of the tertiary institutions is spatially fair to all parts of the
country so as to increase access. However, the national policy on Education
does not make any special provision of the female gender. While the enrolment
of the first two levels of education can be said to be moving towards gender
equalization observations on the higher education, especially the university
seems to be the opposite. For instance, the percentage female enrolled at the
secondary schools in 1980 and 1999 were 13% and 30% respectively, while they
were 25% and 36% in 1980 and 1999 respectively for the male. Similarly, female
enrolment at the primary education level ranged between 43. 2% and 45.5%
between 1990 and 1998. It ranged between 42.7% and 47% during the same period
at the secondary education level. At the University level, the average overall
percentage was 29.8% during the same period for the female. Grey (1993) and
Boquerón (1991) pointed out that the issue now is not of equal educational
opportunity alone, but gender disparity in enrolment among various courses,
especially the sciences and science-related discipline. The implication
according to them was that narrowing the gender gap further would require
breaking down gender barriers in certain courses.
In a related
ethnographic carried out by Holland and Eisenhart (1990) on why few women
become scientists or mathematicians, their findings revealed that gender
disparity is experienced as an individual phenomenon. In spite of these efforts
to close gender gap in education, most African countries seem not to have
embraced women’s rights in the formulation of their educational policies,
particularly at the tertiary level. This, UNICEF (1992) rightly observed that a
more significant and alarming dimension is that gaps continue to be high.
Reports from UNESCO (1995) indicated that boys enrolled in schools more than
girls. For instance, at the first level of education, nearly 85 million or
24.5% of the world’s girls are estimated to be out of school as compared to the
60 million or 16.4% of the world boys. The report shows also showed that five
hundred and sixty-five million of women or two-third of world’s illiterate
adults are women and most of them live in the developing regions of Africa.
The
country’s average enrolment in primary schools between 1989 and 1995 showed
that girls recorded a national average of 44.46%. The enrolment at primary,
post-primary and tertiary levels of education reflects gender imbalance. The
inferior position of women, particularly in African societies is seen to be
normal, and indeed, reinforced by the prevailing religious, economic,
political, cultural, social and legal institutions. These factors include
poverty; distance of schools and school related factors are generally regarded
as common reasons for the persistent gender gap across cultures (UNICEF 1992).
In the African setting, the culture appears dominated by paternalism and
stereotyped tendencies. The Nigeria culture for instance, accords the male
children priority over female right from birth, which transcends into schooling
and inheritance. Particularly among the very low income earners and illiterate
parents who cannot afford western education for their numerous children, many
choose to send the male children to school while giving out their female
children in marriage even at tender age raises money for the education of their
brothers. The rate of female enrolment ranged between 26.22% in 1988/89
academic session and 43.09% in 1996/97. However, it should be noted that there
was a steady increase in the rate of female enrolment over the period. The
increase was, however, not too significant, except for the year 1996/97
academic session. In Nigeria, the seemingly low female enrolment at the
tertiary level may not be solely attributed to discrimination. This is because
female enrolment at the first levels of education is still lower than that of
male. Consequently, continues to the university level (Adeyemi 2001).
Fortunately, the trend is gradually improving due to modernization and public
awareness.
1.2
Statement of Problem
Reports from
UNESCO (1995) indicated that boys enrolled in schools are more than girls. For
instance, at the first level of education, nearly 85 million or 24.5% of the
world’s girls are estimated to be out of school as compared to the 60% or 16.4%
of the world boys. The reports also showed that 565 million women or two-third
of world’s illiterate adults are women and most of them live in the developing
regions of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Indeed recent reports by UNICEF
(2013), indicated that Nigeria is currently rated along with Bangladesh,
Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico and Pakistan as the nine most
populous countries of the world with over 70% of the world’s non-literate
people. Furthermore, while 60% of Nigerian women are illiterate in 1980, it increased
to 63% in 1995, out of which 32.7% were male and 52.7% were female. This rate
varies from North to South of the country. For example, federal Ministry of
women affairs and social development (FMWASD) and UNICEF (2012) observed that
at least 85.7% of females in Northern Nigeria are illiterate as against 31.1%
in the southern part.
The inferior
position of women, particularly in African societies is seen to be normal, and
indeed, reinforced by the prevailing religious, economic, political, cultural,
social and legal institutions. These factors includes poverty, distance from
schools and school related factors are generally regarded as common reasons for
the persistent gender gap across cultures (UNICEF 1992). In the African
setting, the culture appears dominated by paternalism and stereotyped
tendencies. The Nigerian culture for instance, accords the male priority over
female right from birth, which transcends into schooling and even inheritance.
Particularly among the very low earners and illiterate parents who cannot
afford western education for their numerous children, many choose to send the
male children to school while giving out their female children in marriage even
at tender ages to raise money for education of their brothers. The following data
sheds more light. From the 1991 population census figure, 11,148,681 belonged
to 10-14 age group and 9,335,798 belonged to 15-19 age group. Out of this
figure, 651,273 and 2,045,063 were married, which constituted 5.8% and 21.9%
respectively (National Population Commission 1991 and Federal office of
statistics 1999). The 5.8% that married from 10-14 age groups were female and
most of the 21.9% that married from 15-19 age groups were also female.
Unfortunately, these married teenage girls are from low income and illiterate
families.
They were
suppose to be children of school going age by Nigerian educational policy,
which stipulated age 3-5 years for pre-primary education, 6-11 years for
primary education,12-18 years for junior and senior secondary education (NPE
1981,1998) and the legal marriage age in the country is 21 years Nigeria
especially Yoruba. Alternatively, the female are often engage in domestic and
farm labour or street hawking and related task that are essential to the
household economy. UNICEF(1997) national consumer survey revealed that about
48% of Nigerians were poor with 17% of
them being extremely poor and cannot avail themselves of the opportunity of
formal education.
In many
rural settlements, children sometimes have to go long distances on foot to
attend school. The distance of schools from home often place girls safety at
risk while at the same time keeping them away from domestic chores for longer
periods of time. In certain communities, particularly the Islamic cultures,
change of girls going to school may further be thwarted due to lack of
proximity, when separate school facilities are not available to girls and the
absence of female teachers and relevant gender-sensitive curricular. Thus, in
must parts of the Islamic, Nigeria where parents only grudgingly allow their
female children to go to school, for religious and cultural believes, the
traces of what term ”negative western influences” in the school setting easily
makes them to even withdraw their daughters before completing primary
education. This development tends to affect the enrolment of girls up the
tertiary level.
1.3 Purpose
of the Study
This research work is an attempt
1. To ascertain level of disparity in enrolment
into universities.
2. To examine the causes of disparity between
male and female in universities.
3. To determine the extent to which cultural
biases affect women’s participation in adult education.
4. To determine the extent of gender barriers
in adult education programmes in universities.
5. To suggests ways of removing obstacles to
the enrolment of different gender into adult education.
1.4 Research
Questions
The
following research questions will be raised in view to achieving the purpose of
the study
1. What is the level of gender disparity in
enrolment in the universities?
2. What are the causes of disparity between
male and female in universities?
3. Do family responsibilities affect women in
adult education training in universities?
4. What is the extent of gender barrier in
adult education programmes in the universities?
5. To what extent do women participate in adult
education training compared to their counterparts?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study
is significant in a number of ways. In the first place, the factors affecting
women’s participation in adult education need to be thoroughly investigated for
better understanding of the phenomenon. This study is expected to provide a
breakthrough in helping to identify the factors affecting women’s effective
participation in adult education. It is hoped that the study will provide
useful information to policy and decision machinery makers which will enable
them to put in place effective machinery for overcoming such factors and thus
raise the level of women’s participation in adult education. The investigation
will also help to acquaint other researchers and academicians the field of
adult education with specific on interest on women education.
In addition,
the finding of the study will be of immense value to adult learners,
instructors, administrators of literacy programmes and the agency for adult and
non-formal education as it is expected to help them identify problem areas, way
forward, thereby improving on women’s investment and participation in adult
education. besides, since the study is expected to make clear the factors which
is affecting women’s effective participation in adult education, the measure to
adopt in turning the situation around. It is hoped that policy makers and
planners including implementers of adult literacy programmes in the area in
particular and the country in general will then become better informed and
therefore be able to decide on the variable to take into consideration when
formulating, planning and implementation strategies and policies for the growth
and development of adult education. Finally, it will help to increase women’s
awareness about the existence of the programme and thus encourage them to be
more involved.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study
is limited to University of Lagos located at Yaba Local Council Development
Area of Lagos State. The study will make useful suggestions to narrow the
gender gap in the University enrolment in the nearest future, which included
sustained enlightenment programmes and accommodating the females. The
limitation and militating factors are time and financial constraints and the
uncooperative attitude of the respondents in getting the questionnaires filled.
1.7 Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as used in
the study:
1. Enrolment:
Is the act of officially joining a course or a school.
2. Gender: The fact of being male or female.
3. Gender Specific: This is connected with men only
or women only.
4. Disparity: A difference especially connected
with unfair treatment.
5. Access: This is the right or ability of
approaching or entering.
6. Student: A person who studies a particular
academic subject.
1.8 Historical Background of University of
Lagos
University
of Lagos state was founded in 1962, for over 5 decade, provided qualitative and
research-oriented education to Nigerians and all those who have entered its
domain in search of knowledge. At its inception, the University of Lagos was
empowered to produce a professional workforce that would steer the political,
social and economic development of a newly independent country. Over the last
fifty years the University has pursued this mission with vigour, excellence and
panache. The University has built a legacy of academic excellence and is now
acclaimed publicly as “the University of First Choice and the nation’s pride”.
The establishment of the University of Lagos in 1962 was informed by the need
to intensify the training of a professional workforce for a newly dependent
Nigeria in search of rapid industrialization and economic development. The University began with three faculties:
commerce and Business Administration, Law and Medicine. At its first meeting
the Board of the faculty of Commerce and Business Administration changed the
name of the faculty of Business and social studies. The Faculties of Art,
Education, Engineering and science were added in 1964.
For the
first academic session, 1962/1963, the University admitted 46 students for the
faculty of commerce and Business Administration and 26 for the faculty of law.
These students for the faculty of commerce and Business Administration and 26
for the faculty of law. These students received their first lectures on 22
October 1962 at the temporary site in a secondary school at idi-araba, adjacent
to the medical school and the teaching hospital. 28 medical students had
already commenced lectures three weeks earlier on 3 October, 1962. The
University moved from its temporary location in idi-Araba to the Akoka main
campus in September 1965. The direction of the University’s future development
was consolidated with the promulgation of the University of Lagos decree in
1967 (Decree No. 3 of 1967). The new constitution created an integrated and
more structurally coherent institution by establishing a single council for the
whole University. The previous arrangement had two separate councils, one for
the University and the other for medical school. By the beginning of the 1970’s,
the University had developed an unwieldy and confusing academic structure in
which the faculty system operated alongside the school and the collegiate
systems. Law and Engineering were faculties; Education and Medicine were
colleges, while Biological sciences, Mathematics and physical sciences,
Environmental Design, Social studies, Administration, Humanities, and African
studies were schools. On 28 June 1973, senate finally adopted the faculty
system for the whole university, conceding the collegiate system only to the
college of Medicine. The re-designation of the college of Education required a
constitutional amendment and following the promulgation of the University of
Lagos.
The school
postgraduate studies, whose dramatic growth has attracted the sobriquet, “the
lagoon lighthouse, was established on 22 July 1981. In 1984, Federal University
of Technology, Abeokuta (FUTAB) was merged with the University of Lagos.
University
of Lagos’ Mission
The
University of Lagos established autonomous commercial outfits as a means to
generating additional revenue. Foremost among these are Unilag Consult and
Unilag Ventures.
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