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ARSENIC
POLLUTION OF THE SUBSURFACE WATER
ABSTRACT
This work investigates the extent of Arsenic
pollution of borehole waters in Onitsha and environs. Fifteen samples of
drinking water sourced from boreholes were randomly collected and analyzed
using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and the technique employed is wet
oxidation method. The results of Arsenic concentration obtained from the
boreholes ranged from 0.00 mg/L (53.33% of boreholes) to 1.099mg/L (46.67% of
boreholes). Seven out of the fifteen samples were observed to be concentrated
with Arsenic ranging from 0.16mg/L to 1.099mg/L with majority of the
concentrations occurring at areas adjacent to River
Niger and
Nwangene Lake. The results were found to be above the Maximum
Contamination
Level (MCL) of 0.01mg/L set by the World Health Organization (W.H.O, 2011)
therefore, the sources were found to be contaminated with abnormal
concentration of arsenic and the inhabitants who consume this water without
proper treatment are vulnerable to severe health hazards. The high Arsenic
concentrations in the study area could be attributed to both natural and
anthropogenic processes such as improper discharge of untreated industrial
effluents and sewage, urban storm runoff dissolving and leaching organic and
inorganic matter into the subsurface ground, undersurface weathering, agro
products, automobile workshops and emissions. The discharge of these effluents
into water bodies leads to the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fishes
consequently, when humans feed on these aquatic organisms it results to serious
health issues therefore, there is need for effluents to be treated before being
discharged into the environment.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 SUBSURFACE WATER
70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with
water and 97% of the water is saline the quantity and the quality of water is
equally important. Subsurface (groundwater) makes about 30.1% of the Earths
freshwater as compared to 0.3% surface water and 68.7% Ice caps and Glaciers.
Water is referred to as a universal solvent because it can dissolve many types
of substances, but human and animal require water that contains fewer
impurities. Drinking water comes from ground (subsurface) sources such as
ground water and aquifers. It can also be obtained from surface water bodies
such as rivers, streams and glacier other sources including rain, hail, snow
and sea through desalination, surface water picks up different minerals
resulting from the presence of animal or human activities. While for the
subsurface water, the contaminants come from leachate, landfills, septic
systems and the ambient rocks. Similarly, indiscriminate disposal from
agricultural chemicals (Pesticides, Herbicides, Insecticides and Fertilizers)
and household cleaning products. The contaminants in ground water take more
time to be cleaned because it moves slowly and isn’t exposed to the natural
cleansing benefits of air, sunlight and micro-organism.
Generally,
the quality of drinking water is determined based on the appearance, taste,
colour and odour of the water but all these do not really tell if the water
should be free from hazardous compounds as the Geology of an area, its rock
types, their weathered products, precipitation from rainfall, urban storm-water
runoff and human activities in an environment contributes immensely to the
chemistry of subsurface and surface water. Also, the quality of water is a
measure of the suitability of the water for a designated use such as; drinking,
agriculture, recreation, laundry and industrial usage based on selected
physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The N.I.S (Nigerian
Industrial standard), S.O.N (StandardOrganization of Nigeria) and W.H.O (World
Health Organization) set a maximum contaminant level in drinking water supplied
to municipal or population. When a standard or guideline is exceeded in the
municipal or community water system, the state is required to take proper
action to improve water quality level including treating the water through
filtration or aeration blending water from several sources to reduce
contaminants including inorganic chemicals such as salts, metals and mineral.
These substances occur naturally in geological structures or sometimes caused
by mining, industrial and agricultural activities. These chemical can badly
affect human health when they are consumed in large amount.
There are
two main sources of water supply that are available to man, surface water that
includes: rivers, lakes, stream, drainage areas which funnels water toward the
holding reservoirs and subsurface or ground water which includes wells, springs
and horizontal galleries. The water resources are stressed by a number of
factors, including cattle grazing, pollution and rapidly-growing urban areas.
Over a billion people lack access to safe portable water supply globally and
out of this number, more than 300 million people living in rural areas of
SubSaharan Africa are being affected (Bresine, 2007).
1.2 ARSENIC
POLLUTION
General
Description:
Arsenic is
an element that exists in oxidation states of 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, and -3,
that is found naturally in air, water, soil, rocks and minerals, food, and even
living organisms in low concentrations. In water, it is most likely to be
present as arsenate, with an oxidation state of 5, if the water is oxygenated.
However, under reducing conditions (<200 mV), it is more likely to be
present as Arsenite, with an oxidation state of 3.
Compound
Chemical
Abstracts
Service
Number
Molecular
formula
Arsenic
7440-38-2
As
Arsenic
trioxide
1327-53-3
As2O3
Arsenic
pentoxide
1303-28-2
As2O5
Arsenic
sulphide
1303-33-9
As2S5
Dimethylarsenic
acid (DMA)
75-60-5
(CH3)2AsO(OH)
Monomethylarsonic
acid (MMA)
124-58-3
(CH3)AsO(OH)2
Lead
arsenate
10102-48-0
PbHAsO4
Potassium
arsenate
7784-41-0
KH2AsO4
Potassium
arsenite
10124-50-2
KAsO2HAsO2
Table 1.21
Occurrence of Arsenic (Source: Adapted from W.H.O., 2011).
Major Uses:
Arsenicals
are used commercially and industrially as alloying agents in the manufacture of
transistors, lasers and semiconductors, as well as in the processing of glass,
pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, wood preservatives, paints, dyes
and ammunition. They are also used in the hide tanning process and, as well as
pesticides, herbicides, feed additives and pharmaceuticals.
Environmental
Levels (Water, Soil and Food):
The level of
Arsenic in natural waters, including open ocean seawater, generally ranges
between 1 and 2 µg/l. Concentrations may be elevated, however, in areas with
volcanic rock and sulfide mineral deposits; in areas containing natural
sources, where levels as high as 12 mg/l have been reported; near anthropogenic
sources, such as mining and agrochemical manufacture; and in geothermal waters
(mean 500 µg/l, maximum 25 mg/l). Mean Arsenic concentrations in sediment range
from 5 to 3000 mg/kg; the higher levels occur in areas of contamination but are
generally unrelated to Arsenic concentrations in water. The total estimated
daily dietary intake of Arsenic may vary widely, mainly because of wide
variations in the consumption of fish and shellfish. Most data reported are for
total arsenic intake and do not reflect the possible variation in intake of the
more toxic inorganic arsenic species. Limited data indicate that approximately
25% of the Arsenic present in food is inorganic, but this is highly dependent
upon the type of food. Fish and meat are the main sources of dietary intake of
Arsenic levels ranging from 0.4 to 118 mg/kg have been reported in marine fish
sold for human consumption, and concentrations in meat and poultry can be as
high as 0.44 mg/kg.
Health
Effects of Arsenic:
Many
scientific studies conclude that long term exposure to inorganic Arsenic
through drinking water is associated with relatively high risks of cancer of
the lungs and bladder and, to a lesser extent, with an increased risk of cancer
of the skin, liver, and kidneys. Recent studies have also associated chronic
Arsenic exposure through drinking water with a number of other serious health
effects, including developmental defects, stillbirth, and spontaneous abortion
as well as heart attacks, strokes, diabetes mellitus, and high blood pressure.
Arsenic can also cause liver damage, nerve damage, and skin abnormalities (for
example; discoloration and unusual growths, which may eventually turn
cancerous). Some of these effects may take years to develop. Arsine is
considered to be the most toxic form, followed by the Arsenites (Arsenic
(III)), the arsenates (Arsenic (V)) and organic arsenic compounds.
Early
clinical symptoms of acute intoxication include abdominal pain, vomiting,
diarrhoea, muscular pain and weakness, with flushing of the skin. These
symptoms are often followed by numbness and tingling of the extremities,
muscular cramping and the appearance of a papular erythematous rash. Within a
month, symptoms may include burning paraesthesias of the extremities,
palmoplantar hyperkeratosis,
Mee’s lines
on fingernails and progressive deterioration in motor and sensory responses.
Signs of
chronic Arsenicism, including dermal lesions such as hyperpigmentation and
Hypopigmentation, peripheral neuropathy, skin cancer, bladder and lung cancers
and peripheral vascular disease, have been observed in populations ingesting
Arsenic contaminated drinking-water. Dermal lesions were the most commonly
observed symptom, occurring after minimum exposure periods of approximately 5
years. Effects on the cardiovascular system were observed in children consuming
Arsenic contaminated water (mean concentration 0.6 mg/l) for an average of 7
years.
There have
been numerous epidemiological studies that have examined the risk of various
cancers associated with arsenic ingestion through drinking-water. Many of these
studies are ecological-type studies, and many suffer from methodological flaws,
particularly in the measurement of exposure. However, there is overwhelming
evidence that consumption of elevated levels of arsenic through drinking water
is causally related to the development of cancer at several sites, particularly
skin, bladder and lung. In several parts of the world, arsenic-induced disease,
including cancer, is a significant public health problem. Because trivalent
inorganic Arsenic has greater reactivity and toxicity than pentavalent
inorganic arsenic, it is generally believed that the trivalent form is the
carcinogen. However, there remain considerable uncertainty and controversy over
both the mechanism of carcinogenicity and the shape of the dose–response curve
at low intakes. Recently, the trivalent methylated metabolites, MMA (III) and
DMA (III), have been found to be more genotoxic than inorganic arsenic.
Fig 1.2.1
Targeted organs by Arsenic (Source: Adapted from W.H.O., 2011).
1.3 AIM AND
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The
objective of the study can be subdivided into the following:
• To create both individual and public
awareness of Arsenic pollution in the study area.
• To have knowledge regarding the diseases
caused by Arsenic poisoning and mitigating measures available to prevent
contamination.
• To identify Arsenic risk region, level of
education, gender and age as important determinants of Arsenic knowledge.
• To know the extent of Arsenic pollution
of the subsurface water in the study area.
• To prepare a study report that integrates
observations made in the field.
• To interpret through observations made in
the field and laboratory results the history and processes that lead to the
sourcesof Arsenic pollution in this region.
1.4
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The findings of this study will aid in making
existing education programs more effective and in reducing the risk of
developing Arsenic-related illnesses. Also, it will assist policy makers in
considering the effectiveness of current education efforts and in crafting
future public awareness campaigns of Arsenic risks.
1.5 SCOPE OF
STUDY
An extract
of Onitsha map was made from the Google Earth (map). The map covers Onitsha
North and South Local Government Area, Okpoko in Ogbaru Local Government Area
and part of Obosi and Nkpor, both in Idemili North Local Government Area. Some
of the boreholes from which water samples were collected are located in
residential buildings, markets, churches and boreholes close to dump sites.
The study
method employed was the direct observation, sampling and carrying out in-situ
test right there in the field.
1.6 STUDY
AREA
Fig. 1.6 Map
of the study area (Source: Adapted from Google Earth, 2015).
1.6.1
LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY
Onitsha is a
commercial, industrial, educational and ecclesiastical city on the East bank of
the River Niger in Anambra State, Southeastern Nigeria with a high population
density of over 1million. It lies between latitude 06002I56II and
06038I34IINorth of the Equator and longitude 06037I30II and 06059I30II East of
the Greenwich meridian and occupies an area of about 49,000km2. It is bounded
by Anambra West and East local government area and Oyi in the North, Idemili
North and South in the East, Ogbaru local government area in the South and
inthe West by the River Niger.
Onitsha and
environs is accessible by major roads such as the Onitsha-Asaba express way
through the Niger Bridge linking the Eastern states to the Western part of the
country, Onitsha-Enugu express way to the North and Onitsha-Owerri express way
to the South and East. There are many minor and street roads that interconnect
the towns within and outside the city.
1.6.2
TOPOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE AND HYDROGEOLOGY
The relief
features of the study area are unique. The elevation ranges from 33m to 450m
above sea level with average elevation of 250m. Onitsha falls into two main
landform regions: a highland region of moderate elevation that covers most of
the North central-Northeast, East-Southeast and a low plain to the
Northwest-WestSouthwest of the highland. The highland region is a low
asymmetrical ridge or cuesta in the Northern portion of the Awka-Orlu uplands,
which trend roughly Southeast to Northwest, it is highest in the Southeast
about 450m above sea level and gradually decreases in height to only 33m in the
Northwest on the banks of the Anambra River and the Niger.
The drainage
shows that the basin is having low relief of the terrain and is oval tending
towards elongated shape and the network of the drainage is the dendritic
pattern which indicates homogeneity in texture and lack of structural control.
Dumping of refuse along culverts and channels has eventually blocked the
channel of flow into the River Niger. The Niger River flows in the North-South
direction.
The flow
direction of the ground water direction of the ground water is multidirectional
which was influenced by the piezo metric heights, there is also a depression
(sinkhole) at the middle aquifer; this is as result of the population density
with several functional boreholes taping its water from the middle aquifer on
an hourly basis.
1.6.3
CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND OCCUPATION
Onitsha
climate is classified as tropical. When compared with winter, the summers have
much more rainfall. The average temperature in Onitsha is 27.00C while the
average rainfall is 1828mm. Rainfall (precipitation) is lowest in December,
with an average of 12mm. In September precipitation reaches its peak, with an
average of 316mm. At an average temperature of 28.90C March is the hottest
month of the year while at 25.40C on average, July is the coldest month of the
year. Between the driest and wettest months, the difference in precipitation is
304mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 3.50C. Relative
humidity is generally high throughout the year, between 70% and 180%. The
highest figures are experienced during the wet season and the lowest during the
dry season.
The
vegetation of this region is light forest interspersed with tall grasses. The
trees are not too tall and include both hardwood and softwood varieties; domesticated
trees such as the mango, palm tree, guava, orange and almond are found. Much of
the natural vegetation has been felled and the land utilized for development.
The
occupation in Onitsha and its environs is mainly trading, services (tourism,
hospitality, and civil service),and manufacturing, industrial and religious
activities. The Onitsha Main market is reputed as the largest market in Africa
which attracts people from different parts of the continent while, the city is
also reputed as the number one (1) transit city in the country because most of
the road transport services have their headquarters at Onitsha and it hosts the
largest River port in the country which is on the River Niger.
1.7
LITERATURE REVIEW
An
assessment of heavy metal pollution of effluents from three food industries
within Onitsha in Anambra state, Nigeria (Nwosu et al, 2014) showed that the
mean levels of all the heavy metals were above the limit allowed by the Nigeria
Federal
Ministry of Environment (FMENV, 1991) and the World Health
Organization
(W.H.O, 2011) in industrial effluent. It also revealed that apart from Arsenic,
the concentrations of Mercury, Iron, Lead, Chromium, and Cadmium were not
significant when the effluents were compared to each other. Arsenic concentration
ranges from 0.205mg/L to 1.387mg/L.
Arsenic
pollution of surface and subsurface water in Onitsha, Nigeria (Ezeabasili et
al, 2014) revealed the pollution status of Onitsha metropolis water which
indicates that the concentration of both surface and subsurface water is above
the World Health Organization (W.H.O, 2011) standard. Surface concentration
ranges from 0.2001mg/L (River Niger upstream) to 1.5883mg/L (River Niger
central drainage surface) while Groundwater concentration ranges from 0.00mg/L to
1.2507mg/L. This also shows that the pollution of surface water is greater than
that of the subsurface sources.
Furthermore,
Histopathological alterations in the liver and kidney of the fish
Chrysichthys
nigrodigitatus due to heavy metals in Niger River (Nsofor et al, 2014) revealed
the harmful effects of chemical pollutants like heavy metals in the fish
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus of Niger River Onitsha as well as pathological
alterations in liver and kidney tissues of the fish. Also, Arsenic in water
column is significantly lower than those in the fish.
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