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SEDIMENTOLOGY
AND RESERVOIR QUALITY OF OUTCROPPING SEDIMENTS
ABSTRACT
Field
studies were carried out on outcropping sediments exposed in Lokoja and its
environs to gain insight into reservoir characteristics and sedimentological
characteristics. Sieve analysis and petrographic analysis were carried out on
fresh samples of the sediments to determine their statistical parameters,
paleodepositinal environment and their reservoir quality. Granulometric analysis
of the Filele sands reveals that the sediments are medium to coarse, moderate
to poorly sorted, near symmetrical to positively skewed and mainly leptokurtic,
While the granulometric analysis of the Mount Patti sands reveals that the
sediments are fine to medium, well sorted to moderate sorting, negatively
skewed to positively skewed and mesokurtic to leptokurtic. The petrographic
analysis of the Filele sands reveals that the sediments consist averagely of
78% Quartz, 17% Feldspar, and 5% Rock fragment, while the Mount Patti sands
consist of 90% Quartz, 6% Feldspar, and 4% Rock Fragment. Ternary diagram also
reveals that the sediments are mainly sub-arkose. The average mineralogical
maturity index (IMM) for the Filele sands is 3.8 indicative of sub-maturity,
while the Patti sands with 11.7 maturity index are indicative of mature sands.
Using Field evidences and Bivariate plots of skewness versus sorting and mean
versus sorting, a fluvial depositional setting was interpreted for the
sediments.
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Sandstones
are sedimentary rocks formed by the cementation of sediment by material cements
and they show a great deal of variation in mineral composition, degree of
sorting and roundness and they possess quality reservoir characteristics and
mineralogy. Sedimentological studies help to determine sediment characteristics
of the rocks (sorting, sedimentary structures, grain size, shape, lithology,
porosity, texture, maturity etc.). Similarly, petrographic studies are very
useful in understanding and interpreting the mineralogical (petrographic)
details of rocks – their composition, abundance, and morphology among others.
Together, sedimentology and petrography are widely used in the reconstruction
of the geological history of rocks – their distances from provenance,
paleoenvironmental and conditions of formation and/or deformation, diagenetic
processes acting on rocks, tectonic history as well as the stratigraphy.
The need to
combine sedimentological and petrographic analyses for paleoenvironmental
analyses is borne out of the fact that relying on textural analysis alone may
result in gross interpretational errors, especially if diagenetic or
disaggregation processes have significantly altered textural properties of such
sediments (Wilson and Pittman, 1979).
The sedimentological investigation of some
outcropping sediment in southern Bida basin and its environs employed the field
mapping and the laboratory studies approach of the sediments sampled and it was
used in deducing the porosity and permeability of the outcropping sediments in
the study area.
This study
involves the determination of the lithology, mineralogy and textural
characteristics of the sandstone facies in order to predict the reservoir
quality of the sandstone using Sedimentological and petrographic data as
obtained from field evidence of some outcropping sediment of southern Bida
basin and its environs.
1.2 AIM AND
OBJECTIVES
This study
is aimed at investigating the Sedimentological and petrographic attributes of
outcropping sediments in Lokoja and its environs.
The
objectives of this study include:
i. To
determine the lithofacies characteristics of the sediments of the study area;
ii. To
ascertain the mineralogical composition of the sediments;
iii. To
determine the paleodepositional environment in which the sediments where formed
using available sedimentological and petrographic data sets; and
iv. To
characterize the reservoir properties of the sediments by inferring the
porosity and quantitatively determine the permeability.
1.3 LOCATION
AND ACCESSIBILITY
The study
area is located in Kogi State. It is bounded by latitudes 070 30’ N - 080 30’ N
and longitude 006000’E- 0070 00’ E. The area visited include outcrops on road
cuts along the Lokoja-Abuja Express Road and include; Filele and Mount Patti.
The study
area was accessible by main roads and footpaths. The main is the Lokoja-Abuja
express road [(fig. 1)Ojo, 2009].
Figure 1
Geologic map of Southern Bida basin showing (Ojo, 2009).
1.4 RELIEF
AND DRAINAGE
The River
Niger is present in the study area as the main hydrological element. The Niger
River runs in an ESE direction in the southern marginal area/part of the basin.
Its floodplain is broad and locally up to 20km wide and marked in most areas by
a series of elongated ponds running parallel to the river channel. The main
tributaries of the River Niger are River Kaduna (wuya) and Gurara which drain
the Northern Nigeria Basement Complex.
The area of
study has various elevations above sea level as recorded by GPS and shown
below:
Filele
(169m), Mount Patti (255m) and Agbaja plateau (407m).
1.5 CLIMATE
AND VEGETATION
The study
area has an average maximum temperature of 33.20C and an average minimum
temperature of 22.80C. It is generally hot throughout the year with an average
relative humidity of 68-70 percent. The study area has two distinct weathers,
dry and wet seasons. The dry season occurs between November and February while
the rainy season is between March and October.
The
vegetation type in the study area is Guinea savanna or parkland savanna with
tall grasses interspersed shrubs and some trees. The shrubs shed their leaves
during the dry seasons in order to withstand some amount of drought. Apart from
shedding of leaves, some shrubs have stems with thick bark, thick leaves etc.
as adaptive features by the trees or shrubs in low rainfall regions to check
excessive transpiration.
1.6
SETTLEMENT AND LAND USE
The study
area is the headquarters of Kogi state with various settlements ranging from
mainly urban to rural. Main towns in the study area include Ahoko, Kotonkarfi,
Idu and Ozi. The main occupation of the residents is Agriculture. Trade and
other cottage industries are also common in the area.
1.7 SCOPE OF
PRESENT STUDY
This study
is focused on determining the reservoir quality from the sedimentological and
petrographic attributes of outcropping sediment in Lokoja and its environs in
southern Bida basin.
The scope of
this study includes:
I. Field Mapping and sample collection of
outcropping sediments in the study area.
II. Laboratory studies involving
sedimentological and petrographic analyses of collected samples
III.
Quantitative determination of permeability of the sediments.
IV.
Determination of provenance; and
V.
Interpretation of results
1.8
LITERATURE REVIEW
The
Campanian Maastrichtian Lokoja Formation, which is chiefly, if not wholly,
non-marine clastics, comprises of conglomerates, massive, pebbly to coarse
grained sandstones, claystones, siltstones, ironstones and lateritic capping
(Adeleye, 1971, 1973 and Braide 1992). Lokoja sandstone is the oldest formation
in the Southern Bida Basin being 90-280m
thick, overlain by 70-100m thick Maastritichian Patti Formation and about 5-20m thick of Agbaja ironstones overlaying
the middle Patti Formation (Braide,1992, Ladipo 1994). Lokoja sub-basin of the
Bida Basin is a NW-SE shallow, downwarped trough which resulted from the wrench
fault movement associated with the tectonic framework of the Nigerian
sedimentary basins (Jones, 1953 and Braide, 1992) which was filled with
Campanian-Maastritichian sediments as confirmed by the palaeontological and
sedimentological studies (Ojo, 1992, Abimbola 1993). Alluvial fans and deltaic
facies that interfinger with lacustrine facies provide an amount of reservoir
quality for the formation.
The
alternating sandstone and conglomeratic facies of the Lokoja Formation indicate
fluvial sediment dominated by mass flow and bed-load deposits within an
alluvial and braided stream complex (Braide, 1992; Akande et al., 2006). The
immature clast to matrix supported conglomerates are interpreted as debris flow
deposit, similar to the poorly sorted conglomerates interpreted as gravity
induced alluvial fans of the Upper Benue Trough (Nwajide, 1980). Interbedded
sandstones probably represent braided stream channel deposits whereas the
claystones are probably flood plain deposits (Pettijohn, 2004). The massive
matrix supported conglomerate corresponds to a debris flow in an alluvial fan
setting. The conglomeratic unit with graded bedded is interpreted as an
abandoned channel deposit. The alternating conglomerates and sandstones of the
Lokoja Formation in the lower part of the section reflect continental
deposition influenced largely by alluvial and braided stream processes (Akande
et al., 2006). The stratified nature of the shales and sandstones provides
likely favourable pathways for migration of fluids into potential reservoir
rocks made up mainly of fluvial, shelf and flood plain sandstones in the Lokoja
and the Patti formation (Obaje, et al. 2011). Outcrop studies have been used by
Osokpor et al., (2013), to determine the sequence stratigraphy and environment
of deposition for the Bida Basin, and inferred that the Lokoja Formation
enabled the discrimination of various subfacies formed in continental
paleodepositional settings of dominantly fluvial systems during the Late
Cretaceous out-building of sedimentary sequences in the Southern Middle Niger
Basin and signaled as lowstand systems tract architecture. The relatively
well-sorted sandstones unit of the tidally influenced facies of the Patti
Formation has been observed as better characterized reservoir rock compared to
the fluvial Lokoja sandstones with the prevalence of alluvial fans, containing
poorly sorted massive conglomeratic sandstone, matrix supported conglomerate
[(fig, 2), Omali, et al., 2011], proximal to the basement. These continental
alluvial fans with obvious clogging of the pore throats by clays and
clay-filled minerals will be responsible for the inferred reduced porosity and
permeability in the Lokoja sandstone than in the tidally influenced facies (obvious
from observed herringbone and cross-stratifications) of the Patti Formation
which may provide better reservoir possibilities at greater depths (Obaje, et
al., 2011).
Figure 2
Lithologic section of the Lokoja Formation at Filele along Lokoja – Abuja
Highway (Omali, et al.,2011).
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